How Braille Gives the Gift of Literacy

Authored by Jennifer Roozeboom
Edited by Mela Ottaiano 

Many people have seen the raised little dots on signs or menus and know it is called braille. For most, this is the extent of their understanding of braille. But braille has offered literacy to millions of people around the world.

The Origin of Braille

Today, braille is used worldwide, and with the appropriate code, can transcribe any written language into a tactile version. It was created by a French teenager named Louis Braille. 

Louis Braille

Louis Braille was born on January 4, 1809, in Coupvray, France. His father was a skilled leather worker who crafted high-quality horse harnesses and other leather goods. When Louis Braille was three years old, he wandered into his father’s workshop and had an accident with a sharp tool that stabbed his right eye. Over time, his left eye also grew inflamed, and Louis was completely blind at the age of five.

At the age of 10, Louis’s parents enrolled him in the Royal Institute for Blind Youth in Paris, France. The next year, Louis began fiddling with the idea of using symbols to create a new language that the blind or visually impaired could read. When Louis was 13 years old, Captain Charles Barbier of the French army visited the Institute to introduce a system of tactile reading he named Sonography. Initially called night writing, Sonography was based on a system of 12 raised dots and hyphens that Captain Barbier had developed for silently communicating with soldiers at night.

Though the students at the Institute were eager to learn and implement Sonography, several difficulties emerged that rendered it unusable. For example, the 12-dot grid was too large to be felt with a single fingertip, and the finger needed to move up and down to register all the information. Additionally, Sonography lacked punctuation, numbers, and proper spelling. However, Sonography was the inspiration Louis needed, and for the next two years he worked diligently until he completed the alphabet at age 15. Over the next five years, Louis expanded his system to include a way of reading and playing music; in 1829 he made his discoveries known to the world in his book titled Procedure for Writing Words, Music, and Plainsong in Dots. He continued working on his system and published a more completed version in 1937. 

Louis Braille began teaching at the Royal Institute for Blind Youth in Paris at the age of 19. He led classes in grammar, geography, and arithmetic; as an accomplished organist, he also taught music. He was known for his engaging classes and his kindness. Louis employed his dot system during his classes where it was readily accepted by his students. He even organized demonstrations where blind students would write and read a text to prove the system successful, yet there continued to be great resistance from sighted individuals to formally adopt the system. By the age of 26, Louis had been diagnosed with tuberculosis and died in 1852. He was 43 years old.  

In 1854, two years after Louis Braille’s death, France officially approved his dot system and gave it the name of braille.

What Is Braille?

Braille is described by the American Foundation for the Blind as “a system of raised dots that can be read with fingers by people who are blind or who have low vision.” Braille is not a language but a system for transcribing a written language into a textile version. The Braille Authority of North America (BANA) published a document that explains braille basics and lays necessary groundwork for understanding how braille works. As described in the document, the braille system arranges raised dots in a “cell.”

Each braille cell consists of six dot-spaces that are two dot-spaces wide and three dot-spaces long; a single braille cell can contain 64 unique combinations. The raised dots can represent letters, groups of letters, words, punctuation, numbers and other mathematical symbols, formatting marks, musical notations, or anything else a written language may require.

Case Study: Unified English Braille

Words in Unified English Braille (UEB) are written in two forms: uncontracted braille and contracted braille. In both forms, numbers, punctuation, and formatting marks remain the same. However, music, mathematics, scientific and computer notations, weights and measures, monetary systems, and other unique disciplines are written in special types of braille that use both uncontracted and contracted forms.

Uncontracted Unified English Braille

Uncontracted braille transcribes words letter by letter. This form is also referred to as grade one braille or Alphabetic braille and is most commonly used in children’s literature or by adults who are still learning braille. In UEB, uncontracted braille is read by memorizing the unique pattern of raised dots for the 26 letters of the English alphabet.

The Alphabet

In UEB, the six dots in a braille cell are numbered one through six; the left column dots are designated as one through three (top to bottom), and the right column dots are designated as four through six (top to bottom). In uncontracted braille, the first ten letters in the alphabet (a through j) are assigned dot signatures using dots one, two, four and five. For example, the braille signature of letters a through c is dot one, dots one and two, and dots one and four, respectively. The next ten letters (k through t) follow the same pattern as the previous ten letters, only with the addition of dot 5. Except for the letter w, letters u through z follow the same pattern as the first five letters of the previous ten letters, only with the addition of dot 6. W is excluded from this pattern due to the French heritage of the system, and that the French language rarely required the w sound at the time braille was invented.

See the braille signatures of all 26 letters below, taken from the downloadable UEB Braille Chart from Duxbury Systems. Notice how w does not follow the pattern set by previous lines of letters. 

Uncontracted braille laid the foundation on which contracted braille was built.

Contracted Unified English Braille

Contracted braille, also called grade two braille, is a true transcription of the printed version, but includes contracted forms of words and sounds. Just as English print text uses contractions such as “can’t” for “cannot” to reduce text, contracted braille can greatly reduce page space and increase the speed at which the content can be read. Braille contractions can use multiple braille cells and ultimately get very complicated with several specific rules to make sense of the contractions. Though it can be intimidating to learn, contracted braille is used more frequently than uncontracted braille due to the significant time and space that can be saved. Contracted braille is read by memorizing the unique pattern of raised dots for the part-word and whole-word contractions established in UEB and the rules that govern each.

Part-Word Contractions

Part-word contractions are single-cell or multi-cell contractions that represent letter combinations that are common in words. Many part-word contractions are assigned a regular position, either in the beginning, middle, or end of a word, which is the only place they are allowed to be used. For example, several double letter combinations such as bb, cc, and gg are given their own braille cell dot signature and must be used in the middle of a word.

An exception to this rule is a group of whole-word single-cell contractions that includes the words and, for, of, the, and with, and can be placed in any part of a word. Other specific two-letter and three-letter combinations such as gh, er, and ing that have been assigned specific braille cell dot configurations can be placed anywhere in a word as well.

Multi-cell, part-word contractions use two or more cells to indicate portions of words. Initial-letter contractions are a group of indicators that signal the next letter represents the beginning of the contracted word, and occupy the first cell of a multi-cell, part-word contraction. For example, the word time is written with an initial-letter contraction (dot five) followed by the letter t (dots three through five). This demonstrates the use of an initial-letter contraction because t is the initial letter of the word time.  

Conversely, a final-letter contraction also occupies the first cell of a multi-cell, part-word contraction and is used before a letter to indicate the letter is the final letter of the word represented. For example, the word children is written with a final-letter contraction (dots one and six) followed by the letter n (dots one, three, four, and five). This demonstrates the use of a final-letter contraction because n is the final letter in the word children.   

A third form of multi-cell, part-word contractions is the short-form contraction. In this form, two or more letter signatures are placed side by side. For example, the word paid is formed by using two cells with the signature for the letter p (dots one through four) in the first cell, and the signature for the letter d (dots one, four, and five) in the second cell. Similarly, the word myself is formed using three braille cells using the letters m (dots one, three, and four), y (dots one and three through six), and f (dots one, two, and four).

Whole-Word Contractions

Whole-word contractions are single-cell or multi-cell shorthand used to represent entire words. Multi-cell contractions are formed by combining part-word contractions; single-cell, whole-word contractions are formed by various other methods.

The most common type of whole-word contraction used in UEB is a single-letter sign. These contractions are made by simply using the letter signature for the first letter of the word. For example, in contracted braille, the symbol for the letter k represents the word knowledge. There are 23 single-letter contractions, one for each letter of the alphabet except for the letters a, i, and o, as they already exist as entire words. 

Single-cell signs are another type of whole-word contractions. In this case, a specific dot signature is primarily and only assigned to an entire word. That is, the signature is not also used for a letter or different sound. There are only five single-cell signs, and they are used for the words and, for, of, the, and with.

Another form of whole-word contractions is single-cell, part-word signs. These work very similarly to single-letter signs but instead of using the dot signature of a single letter, the dot signature of a part-word sign is used to represent an entire word. An example of this is the part-word ch (dots one and six), which also represents the full word child.

Two additional forms of whole-word contractions are situated on the bottom portion of the braille cell and double as punctuation or various other part-word contractions. These words are differentiated from their various other uses by complicated spacing rules.

Shared Elements

The dot signatures of numbers and punctuation do not change when switching between uncontracted and contracted braille.

Numbers

In a brilliant use of logic, the braille system transcribes numbers by placing a designated number symbol (dots three through six) before the dot signatures used for the letters a through j. For example, writing the number one uses two braille cells. The first cell would contain dots three through six for the number symbol, and the second cell would contain dot one (as it would for the letter a). When multi-digit numbers are used, the number symbol appears before only the first digit. When writing a list of numbers, the number symbol is placed before each new number, and individual numbers are separated by a space (an empty braille cell).

Punctuation

Though there are exceptions, punctuation is usually placed in the bottom two rows of the braille cells (dots two, three, five, and six). Like numbers, ten commonly used punctuation marks are the same dot signatures that are used for the letters a through j, only these marks are shifted downward one row. For example, a comma and the letter a are both transcribed as a single dot. Only the letter a is represented as dot one, and the comma is represented as dot four (down a row from dot one). The semicolon is the letter b (dots one and two) moved down a row to dots two and three, and the colon is the letter c (dots one and four) moved down a row to dots two and five. Less common punctuation, such as an asterisk, requires multiple cells to indicate the mark. Other punctuation or formatting require a specific symbol and/or multiple cells that precede the text. For example, to capitalize a word, a capitalization symbol (dot six) precedes the first letter; to capitalize all the letters of a word, two capitalization symbols (dot six, dot six) precede the first letter.

See the relationships between the braille signatures of the letters, numbers zero through nine, and common punctuation here.

Modern Braille

Since letter-for-letter transcriptions can be cumbersome, most languages have added some form of braille contractions; nonetheless, modern braille is largely unchanged from the original dot system. However, the ways in which braille is distributed and consumed have changed drastically, improving the lives of those living with blindness.

Braille for Many Languages

As Louis Braille was French, the first language braille was used to transcribe was French. However, languages that used the Latin alphabet could share braille symbols with only slight differences afforded for accents and miscellaneous letters. The Missouri School for the Blind adopted braille in 1854, marking the first formal use of braille in the United States. In 1870, Great Britain adopted braille for standard use, beating out other tactile writing and reading systems that were still in circulation at the time. But differences persisted, and in 1878, a world congress met in Paris and declared braille the official reading and writing system for the blind. The NewWorldEncyclopedia states that over the next 12 years, “braille was adopted in schools for the blind in Spain, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, and England.” However, a similar war of systems remained unsettled in the United States until 1917, when braille emerged as the winner. In 1932, Great Britain and the United States agreed upon a single system of Braille that other English-speaking countries also adopted. The United Nations rapidly expanded the reach of braille when it began adapting braille for more than 200 languages in 1949.

As of 2013, a joint effort between several organizations have produced and updated the World Braille Usage, a reference book for braille. Now in its third edition, the World Braille Usage contains braille code for 133 languages from 142 countries around the world. Interestingly, Braille can connect all languages by use of the braille cell. Therefore, learning a new language in braille has the advantage of the familiarity of braille cells, and can be done more easily than learning languages with new or unfamiliar characters by sight.

Advancements in Braille Technology

As described by the National Federation of the Blind’s Evolution of Braille, for many decades following Louis Braille’s death, blind children continued to be educated away from sighted children in specialized schools with teachers who were braille-literate and could produce materials in braille as needed. This was convenient, as producing braille before the 1970s was done either by hand with a slate and stylus or printed with specialized braille publishing equipment. But in 1975, U.S. President Gerald Ford signed Public Law 94-142 that “guaranteed a free and appropriate public education, or FAPE, to each child with a disability in every state and locality across the country.” The resultant shift in education required a progressive growth in braille translators to meet the increasing demand for braille educational materials, which also served to increase braille awareness.

The invention of computers inspired early models of braille translation software and electronic braille displays ­– braille was no longer confined to physical print. As computer technology advanced, computer speech output technology allowed visually impaired people a level of independence they had never previously enjoyed. For example, those with access to the technology could type and check their work by having it read back to them as well as print documents that others could read.

As computers have become more commonplace, braille communication has advanced remarkably. Perhaps most incredible, refreshable braille displays “directly provide access to information on a computer screen by electronically raising and lowering different combinations of pins in braille cells.” These screens refresh with new information as the user scrolls or navigates to different information. Advances such as these allow blind or visually impaired people greater access to information, knowledge, and to the world at large.

Life With Modern Braille

Today, blind people can make purchases online, access and modify sensitive material, and communicate with others directly – all without a translator. Indeed, with forms of braille code, such as the Nemeth Code specific to mathematics and scientific notation and the international braille music notation to name a few, visually impaired and blind people can enjoy a wide range of hobbies and professional roles.

To accommodate not only visual impairment, but all forms of disabilities, several countries have established some degree of legal protection of people with disabilities, many specific to the workplace. To that end, even after meeting specific government accessibility regulations, there are additional ways to improve workplace accessibility. Regarding visual impairments, a workplace should add braille to signs and office equipment such as the copy machine, supply braille keypads and screen-reading software, and be sure to have alternative formats, such as large-print and braille, of all documents. Additionally, employees should receive training on how best to approach and interact with any disabled colleagues, including proper meeting etiquette. For example, if a visually impaired employee is in a meeting, each colleague in attendance should introduce themself, and a leader should make it known if someone leaves. Ensuring that all employees have access to the technology they need and adopt an attitude of respect will translate into an inclusive experience for employees and consumers alike. As stated by BrailleWorks.com, “modern consumers prefer to do business with socially responsible companies.” Businesses that embrace and work toward being fully accessible will not only gain customers (there are 43 million people living with blindness worldwide) but also access to the ideas and ingenuity of every colleague.